Lt Gen HJS Sachdev (retd)

In the classical understanding of warfare, victory was relatively straightforward. Armies clashed, territories were seized, and treaties formalised new realities. Thinkers like Carl von Clausewitz defined war as “an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will,” while Sun Tzu argued that the highest form of victory lay in achieving objectives without fighting at all. Historically, the idea was simple: the side that imposed its will on the opponent, militarily or politically, claimed victory.

However, the 21st century has reshaped this notion. The advent of multi-domain warfare, digital information ecosystems, and AI-driven propaganda has transformed conflicts into contests fought as much in the minds of populations as on the battlefield. Today, wars are waged in two simultaneous arenas—the physical battlespace, where control of territory, resources, and governance is contested, and the cognitive battlespace, where competing narratives seek to define legitimacy and shape global perceptions. Social media, satellite broadcasting, and real-time information flows have introduced a “war of narratives”, where winning global opinion often seems as critical as battlefield outcomes.

Yet, despite these shifts, one enduring truth remains: narratives alone do not decide wars. While perceptions can influence external support, domestic morale, and diplomatic manoeuvering, they rarely settle conflicts. The ultimate test of victory continues to lie in securing a sustainable end-state, one where political objectives are achieved, security frameworks are durable, and realities on the ground align with strategic goals. Liddle Hart believed ‘The object of war is a better state of peace’. Failure to consolidate peace often lead to heightened tensions and renewed wars.

To illustrate this dynamic, we examine four ongoing and recent conflicts—Ukraine, Gaza, Afghanistan, and the India–Pakistan confrontation of May 2025—to understand the interplay between narrative dominance and material outcomes.

Narratives as Tools or Determinants of Outcomes

Narrative warfare has always existed, but in the information age, its speed and reach have been radically amplified. Governments, insurgents, and even ordinary citizens now compete in real time to frame events for audiences that sp